The resurgence of ethno religious groups claiming their descendancy from the earliest Muslim communities who settled in Quanzhou has led to the Ding lineage being incorporated into the Hui people in 1979. The Hui people form the largest of 10 Muslim nationalities in China and are the 20th century descendants of Arab and Persian ancestors. This is borne out by the abundance of preserved family genealogies, gravestones, stele inscriptions and dynastic records, which are now recognized as part of local Chinese culture.
The Chinese began to forge links with and travel to many countries in Southeast Asia from early times. This can be seen from archaeological finds across the region and is recorded in the literature of the time. Inscriptions in the form of epigraphic materials also provide insights into the travels of the Chinese during the period, including likely origins and departure and arrival sites.
Perceptions of China have varied from one era to another, and include the “China of Marvels”, the “China of Enlightenment” or the “China of Exotics”. The “China of Marvels” caught the public’s imagination in medieval times with China being seen as highly advanced in many areas, compared to Western countries. But by the 13th century and the Yuan dynasty, this positive perception changed rapidly when China adopted anti-foreign policies.
By the mid-16th century, Manila had become a thriving Spanish colonial metropolis, trading in Chinese-produced silk and other goods. Initially sampans were the main means of transport from China, taking about 10-15 days to arrive in Manila. In exchange for Mexican silver and gold dust, the Chinese traded in raw and finished silk and luxury goods, as well as more basic provisions and cooking utensils etc.
Serving as the gateway between East and West, the Gulf of Thailand was a busy trade route for commercial vessels. Since the area was rich in resources, spices and exotic goods, traders also often stopped to purchase and sell merchandise, as well as stock up on food and water supplies. While the gulf was safer than many seas, inevitably some ships sank with their cargoes.
Researchers agree that silk production began in China in the first millennium B.C. and that this led to the creation of the first Silk Roads, which connected to the Roman Empire, via India, Persia, Afghanistan, the Pamir mountains and beyond. By the first centuries B.C., it is clear from archaeological finds in Viet Nam that trading links had developed there and that silk was being produced and woven in the Giao Chi region.
Despite the lack of written records before the Hispanic era, archaeological finds provide a material history of extensive trade. Commerce occurred via the maritime and land silk roads that spread from China through mainland Asia, insular Southeast Asia, and eventually into the Philippines. The earliest Chinese finds date from late Tang Dynasty (9th century AD), providing quantitative evidence of the Philippine share in maritime trade.
The Topkapi Palace in Istanbul has one of the most valuable collections of Chinese and Japanese porcelain in the world. The palace was built in the 1460s and was the residence for the imperial family until the mid-19th century. Now a museum, its famous collection of porcelain dates back to the 13th century and includes over 1,000 pieces of blue and white celadon and over 3,000 pieces of Yuan, Ming and Vietnamese ware, including some of the finest blue and white examples from the Ming Dynasty.
The sea routes between South India, Sri Lanka and the Indonesian archipelago of Sumatra, Java and Bali were already well established by the beginning of the Christian era, long before Persian and Arab ships arrived. However, trade links extended once seasonal variations in monsoon winds were harnessed to support inter-continental journeys and as shipbuilding techniques advanced. Despite small populations, many areas of Indonesia became fertile sources for valuable products and markets, both for international, as well as local trade.
References to trade between the West (Alexandria) and India via the Persian Gulf are curiously absent from literature of the time, e.g. in the Perplus Maris Eryharraei. This makes it difficult for historians to assert with confidence where the prime silk routes ran at this time, who the main traders were, and what their relations with India were. While the Gulf area was well populated and active in maritime trade, trade was often closed due to troubled relations with Rome.
