Beads are some of the few remaining traded objects to be found along the immense silk routes. Like ceramics, they also reveal innovations in the development of their means of production, as well as changing tastes and uses. Four types of beads have been found in Southeast Asia: 1. Indo-Pacific monochrome beads (2^nd century BC to 1200 AD), which were made by Indians and Tamils; 2. Segmented, folded and mosaic eye beads (9^th – 11^th century AD), which originated in the Islamic West; 3.

As the list of merchandise travelling on the Silk Road diversified, so too did the means of transport. By the 1^st century AD, maritime routes emerged, reflecting developments in shipbuilding and sailing techniques. Consequently, Thailand came to play a pivotal role with its geographical position in South East Asia and ports on either side of the Malay peninsular.

Thai people began maritime trade with other countries from prehistoric times and developed a sophisticated culture and know-how to sail in vessels. Despite this, Thai sailors were mostly not well known to the outside world. In fact, they rarely travelled far, unlike Chinese and Arab soldiers. This was because of the availability of a wide variety of resources in the Thai region, meaning that there was little necessity to go far afield for other foreign commodities.

The spread and influence of Buddhism via the early trade routes throughout Southeast Asia was surprisingly pervasive, particularly in Thailand and Indonesia, where there were close interactions between Buddhist establishments and trading groups. Excavated objects of Indian origin that feature a range of classic Buddhist symbolism include pottery, ornaments, ivory objects, carnelian, and terracotta seals. From the 2^nd century B.C.

The city of Tuban on the Javanese coast has a long history of seafaring and maritime trade. It was an entrepot and exported various goods such as salt, cotton, and tortoise shell. Tuban is mentioned in historic sources under the name of Kampang Putih from the 11^th century onwards. It prospered during the Majapahit Empire until the 15^th century, when it lost some of its importance due to the rise of the nearby harbour of Gresik.

Archaeological findings in Sumatra and Java have revealed that the Strait of Malacca, the Strait of Sunda and the Indian Ocean were zones of trade from the first centuries of our era onwards. From the 7^th to the 13^th century AD, the region was controlled by the rulers of Srivijaya. The power subsequently shifted to the Sultanates of Samudera-Pasai, Aceh, Malacca, and Banten. From the 7^th to the 16^th century, major harbours emerged and import and export monopolies were created.

In the Republic of Tuva, the indigenous Tuvinians live together with people from other ethnic backgrounds, mostly Russian settlers who emigrated in the late 19^th and early 20^th century. This cultural mixture has led to the emergence of different kinds of bilingualism. The feudal clique of Tuvinians had already learned to speak Mongolian during the 16^th century and later under the Manchu Empire.

The city of Old Banten, which is situated in Northwest Java close to the Strait of Sunda, prospered due to its connection to the maritime Silk Road. According to a 16^th-century report by Tome Pires, Banten was the most important port city of the Hinduist Kingdom of Sunda, and it conducted trade with Sumatra and the Maldives. The city was also described in the Javanese “Sejarah Banten” and in Dutch writings.

The history of seafaring in Oman began during the 3^rd millennium BC. Oman’s early and active engagement in maritime trade was due to its strategic position between Southeast Asia and Africa, its long coastline and its safe natural harbours. The Omanis were known for building and exporting very good ships, and they traded with precious goods such as frankincense. In the 9^th century AD, Oman’s military and merchant fleet was considerably reinforced.

Contrary to widespread beliefs, the Mongolian conquest of Central Asia in the 13^th century AD did not extinguish existing pictorial traditions. Thus, for instance, the art of book illuminations was developed under the Mongols who used it for their own purposes. During the Il-Khanid dynasty, an important school of painting was founded in Tabriz, and many books were illustrated in a new style which incorporated elements of Mongolian and Chinese art.