The history of seafaring in Oman began during the 3^rd millennium BC. Oman’s early and active engagement in maritime trade was due to its strategic position between Southeast Asia and Africa, its long coastline and its safe natural harbours. The Omanis were known for building and exporting very good ships, and they traded with precious goods such as frankincense. In the 9^th century AD, Oman’s military and merchant fleet was considerably reinforced.

During the Abbasid Caliphate which stretched to the borders of China, its capital Baghdad was a meeting point of the land and sea Silk Routes as well as an important trading centre. Several cities in Iraq became famous for the silk they produced and sold. Thus, for instance, Attabi silk textile from the region of Attabiya was adopted by Persians who produced it in Isfahan, and embroidered silk from Mosul was exported to various countries in Asia and Europe. Other silk-producing cities included Basrah, Kufa, Hira, Anbar and Numaniya.

Various textual sources have revealed the existence of several kingdoms, trading centres and harbour cities on the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra from the 3^rd century AD onwards. They subsequently came under the influence of the kingdom of Funan and the kingdom of Srivijaya, which relied on the help of sea people, the so-called “orang laut”, to gain power over Sumatra. By the late 7^th century, Srivijaya was the major maritime power in Southeast Asia, and Palembang became the most important entrepot.

Camel caravans, which could cover distances from 30 to 40 kilometres a day, used to play a major role as a means of transport in the Mongolian economy and trade. Caravan leaders, whose living conditions were very hard and who had an important function in society, had to combine various skills with knowledge and experience. Caravan roads through Mongolia linked important commercial centres in the country with Chinese and Russian towns. Furthermore, they were used by European merchants for their trade with China.

By the 8^th century, Muslim merchants sailing to the East established colonies and large numbers of them settled in China. They certainly came in contact with merchants from the Korean peninsula, since the kingdom of Silla entertained close political, economic and cultural relations with Tang China. Thus, elements of Islamic culture were introduced in Silla. Medieval Muslim sources contain numerous references to Silla, but their information was not very accurate.

Since Buddhist monks used to travel with merchants, maritime trade relations between South and Southeast Asia played a major role for the expansion of Buddhism into the latter region. In mainland Southeast Asia, which entertained intense contact with Sri Lanka, Theravada Buddhism was predominant and survived even after the arrival of Islam and Christianity in the region led to the conversion of the biggest part of maritime Southeast Asia.

In Sindh, Pakistan, which is situated by the sea in the Indus Delta, boats have played a crucial role from prehistoric times. In order to navigate the sea, the river and the numerous lakes in Sindh, its inhabitants developed a large variety of boats with different shapes and structures over the centuries. When Arab and Persian merchants expanded maritime trade routes, Sindh became fully integrated in the inter-Asian trade network. Sindhian merchants also entertained independent commercial relations with East and Southeast Asia.

The Bahrain fortress was built close to the seashore around the 3^rd century AD, presumably by Persian Sasanian kings. Islamic coins bearing the symbol of a member of the Salgharid family have revealed that it was reused and transformed during the 13^th century. In the 14^th century, a new fortress was built by the Kings of Ormus and restored by the Portuguese in the late 15^th century. In the Qalat al Bahrain, Chinese coins from the Tang and Song dynasties and ceramics from various origins were found.

Chinese sources play an important role in the historiography of ancient Brunei. The earliest known description of Brunei can be found in the book of Liang. During the Liang dynasty in the 6^th century AD, many Chinese monks sailing to India landed in Brunei. During the Ming dynasty, Brunei was described in accounts of various Chinese travellers, such as Huang Xingzeng’s book Xi Yang Chao Gong Dian Lu (Tributes from the Western Countries) and Zhang Xie’s book Dong Xi Yang Kao (Studies on the Eastern and Western Oceans).

Ancient ceramics, which are usually well conserved in tropical climates, constitute valuable evidence for the dating of excavation sites and the study of historic cultures and trade relations. Peninsular Malaysia was a stopover for merchants travelling from East to West and vice versa on the maritime Silk Road, and ceramics were also transported on the inland river routes. Excavations in Malaysia, especially in ancient ports, have revealed porcelain from various origins including China, India, the Middle East and several Southeast Asian countries.