The city of Tuban on the Javanese coast has a long history of seafaring and maritime trade. It was an entrepot and exported various goods such as salt, cotton, and tortoise shell. Tuban is mentioned in historic sources under the name of Kampang Putih from the 11^th century onwards. It prospered during the Majapahit Empire until the 15^th century, when it lost some of its importance due to the rise of the nearby harbour of Gresik.

Archaeological findings in Sumatra and Java have revealed that the Strait of Malacca, the Strait of Sunda and the Indian Ocean were zones of trade from the first centuries of our era onwards. From the 7^th to the 13^th century AD, the region was controlled by the rulers of Srivijaya. The power subsequently shifted to the Sultanates of Samudera-Pasai, Aceh, Malacca, and Banten. From the 7^th to the 16^th century, major harbours emerged and import and export monopolies were created.

The city of Old Banten, which is situated in Northwest Java close to the Strait of Sunda, prospered due to its connection to the maritime Silk Road. According to a 16^th-century report by Tome Pires, Banten was the most important port city of the Hinduist Kingdom of Sunda, and it conducted trade with Sumatra and the Maldives. The city was also described in the Javanese “Sejarah Banten” and in Dutch writings.

Many petroglyphs in Central Asia and neighbouring areas feature anthropomorphic figures with heads surrounded by rays and widely spread fingers. Some of these images, which can also be found on ceramics, represent headgear or masks made from bird feathers. The “sunheaded” figures were often accompanied by horses and chariots. They certainly spring from Indo-European myths of solar deities, especially Mitra, who appears in the Rigveda and Avesta.

Various textual sources have revealed the existence of several kingdoms, trading centres and harbour cities on the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra from the 3^rd century AD onwards. They subsequently came under the influence of the kingdom of Funan and the kingdom of Srivijaya, which relied on the help of sea people, the so-called “orang laut”, to gain power over Sumatra. By the late 7^th century, Srivijaya was the major maritime power in Southeast Asia, and Palembang became the most important entrepot.

In and around the Buddha’s birthplace in Lumbini, Nepal, several important archaeological sites associated with the life of the Buddha were discovered from the end of the 19^th century onwards. Findings such as the pillars which were erected by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in the 3^rd century BC revealed important information about the birth and life of the Buddha. In the late 1960s, UN Secretary-General U Thant visited Lumbini. He subsequently called on the international community to develop the area into a pilgrimage centre.

Japanese art counts many illustrations of the life and death of Maya (“illusion”), the mother of the Buddha, which are very faithful to the Indian tradition. However, in one respect Japanese Buddhists chose an original path: even though Maya is generally not venerated by Buddhists, a temple devoted to the worship of Buddha’s mother was discovered on a mountain near Kobe. In this temple, a statue of Maya and inscriptions reveal that she was venerated there as a universal mother.

After the birth of Buddhism, the new religion quickly spread to large parts of Central, South and Southeast Asia. Lumbini, the birthplace of the Buddha, was a very important pilgrimage destination from the 3^rd century BC onwards. A pillar with an inscription erected by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in 245 BC identifies the spot where the Buddha was born. Lumbini was densely populated and much visited until the early Middle Ages. However, the site was concealed by a forest from the fifteenth or sixteenth century onwards.

Islam was introduced in Java by missionaries travelling along the maritime Silk Road. It was influenced by Sufism and integrated elements of earlier Indonesian beliefs. In coastal areas of Java, the encounter between local culture and foreign influences, which reached the area through overseas merchants, led to the emergence of new ornamental designs on artefacts and buildings. In mosques, tombs and palaces along the North Javanese coast, a large variety of ornamental designs were found, such as floral, animal and geometric patterns.

The study of Mongolia’s cultural ecology poses numerous difficulties, due to the size of the territory and the lack of archaeological and historical data. Cultural ecology analyses the interaction between humans and their environment, which is shaped by culture. It seems promising to apply a research strategy which uses tools from various disciplines. Remote sensing, for instance via satellite images, allows to examine physical and biological environments and detect traces of human activities.