Three centuries after the Buddha’s lifetime, under the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, Buddhism spread to numerous countries in South and Southeast Asia via the land and the sea routes. The expansion of Buddhism led to the construction of a large number of religious sites, such as the Phra Patom Chedi, which is the oldest monument in Central Thailand. It was discovered in the 19^th century by the future king Rama IV of Thailand, who built a Chedi over the old, ruined Stupa.

Until its destruction in the 5^th century AD, Taxila had functioned as a focal point connecting the Mediterranean countries and Central Asia to India for several centuries. Darius I first established commercial relations between India and Gandhara and the Western world. Following Alexander the Great’s conquests and due to the increasing demand of Eastern luxury goods in the West, the relations between India, Pakistan and the Mediterranean countries were intensified.

The period of the Malacca Sultanate, which lasted from 1400 to 1511 AD, was a landmark in the history of Malaysia. It was situated at a strategic position at the Straits of Malacca and controlled domestic and international trade in the Malay Archipelago. Malacca played a major role in the diffusion of Islam in Southeast Asia, and the Malay language became a lingua franca in the region.

When Dutch troops arrived in Formosa in the 1628, they discovered that there was a booming trade with venison and deer with merchants from mainland China. The locals essentially lived on venison and used every part of the deer for clothing and other purposes. Since they were not familiar with money, goods were bartered with the Chinese traders. Deer skins also functioned as currency until the late 20^th century. Most venison and some live deer were shipped to the Chinese coast, and large quantities of deerskin were sold to Japan.

From pre-Islamic times, there were trade relations between the kingdom of Silla on the Korean peninsula and the Middle East, via the Maritime Silk Road. After the birth of Islam, Muslim merchants travelled extensively to the East and some of them settled there, for instance in China, and they probably came in contact with merchants from Silla. Muslims also settled on the Korean peninsula, where they found rich natural resources, especially gold, and pleasant living conditions. They cultivated Islamic culture and religious tradition.

Archaeological findings have shown that various harbours around Sumatra, the Straits of Malacca and the Strait of Sunda, were part of a trade network from the 1^st century AD onwards. Commerce expanded significantly in the 10^th century AD, a time when the sea around Sumatra was controlled by the rulers of Sriwijaya. From the 14^th century onwards, power in the region shifted to the Muslim rulers of Samudera-Pasai and subsequently the Sultanates of Aceh and Banten.

In pre-Islamic times, the Sasanian Empire tried to gain control over the two Eastern systems of communication and trade, the land and sea Silk Road, as well as over the Mediterranean system in the West, which was built up by the Romans. The Sasanians tried to block contacts between the Eastern and Western trade networks. After the rise of Islam, the Silk Roads were extensively used by Muslims.

In the early 17^th century, the Dutch introduced the printing press into the Dutch East Indies. Two centuries later, Christian missionaries launched a large-scale campaign of publishing texts in Malay. Printing presses for missionary purposes were set up on the Malay peninsula and in Singapore, which became a major centre for publications of Christian books, tracts and periodicals in Malay and other vernacular languages. These writings had a significant impact on Malay culture.

During the Yuan dynasty, the Muslim politician Sayyid-al-ajall Shames-al-din settled in China, where he became governor of the Yunnan province. Today, the descendents of Sayyid-al-ajall Shames-al-din are scattered over several provinces in China. His descendents in Quanzhou assimilated more and more to the dominant Han culture. There is an Ancestral Hall of the Ding family in Chendai. The Ding family in Chendai maintains their religious particularities, and they have become active in the preservation of the Hui minority’s heritage.

Islam was brought to the Malay archipelago by traders, and it soon replaced earlier beliefs among the Malays. Fundamental principles of the Shafi’i school of Sunni Islam were adopted, but certain additions reflected cultural specificities of the region. Malays strictly observe the four pillars of Islam: prayer, fasting, distribution of alms and, if they can afford it, pilgrimage to Mecca. However, even fundamental tenets of Islam are subject to local interpretations.