Cultural Selection: Medieval Alchemy and Chemistry in Central Asia

Pharmacy Bottles, Mortar and Pestle, and Scales in an Old Drugstore © Moonana / Shutterstock.com

We invite you to read our weekly Cultural Selection articles, which adhere to preselected themes. Knowledge and appreciation of these subjects help to preserve, disseminate, and promote elements of our common heritage of the Silk Roads.

The earliest work on chemical processes and transformations were conducted in the ancient world, Egypt, Mesopotamia (Assyria and Babylon), the Indian sub-continent, and China. The major sciences that developed along the Silk Roads included alchemy and chemistry. However, the origins of chemical and pharmacological knowledge can also be traced to Central Asia. Natural deposits of metals permitted the development of metallurgic materials and an experimentation with alchemy. During the Middle Ages, mining and agrarian life developed significantly. The Zarafshan valley in Sogdia had elevated levels of lead, arsenic, copper, and antimony deposits, which were the principal constituents of bronze. Deposits of raw materials in Ferghana and Sogdia, Ilaq (lead, silver, and gold), and the Shahr-i-Sabz (red salt) regions were mined extensively. These natural deposits served as the foundation from which alchemy and chemistry flourished, subsequently leading to the development of modern medicine, pharmacology, and pharmaceutics. Apothecary shops and chemical laboratories dating to the late 8^th century were unearthed during archeological excavations in Paikent, near Bukhara. The site revealed essential elements for the preparation of medicines. These included furnaces, kilns, storage pits, a hand-mill, and glass vessels. Glass vessels were characteristic of a type as al-anbiq, from which the word “alembric” is derived. Medicinal containers, ceramic bowls, and a small amount of wax were also excavated. Wax was widely used in Eastern medicine as a component of ointments and medicines.

Surviving manuals and alchemical literature includes works by medieval scholars, including Ibn Umayl al-Tamimi (900- 960), al-Khwarazmi al-Kasi (11^th century), and Ibn Arfa Ra’sahu (12^th century). U. I. Karimov divided alchemy into two groups. Scientific works that lacked elements of mysticism were assigned to group 1. These contained concise, factual descriptions of practical operations that could be understood by the scientific community. It also promoted technological advancement, production of building materials, and development of small manufacturing products including metallurgy and glass-making. Irrefutable, factual knowledge also served as the basis for chemical preparations of remedies and medicinal concoctions. Content from group 2 comprised works on alchemy imbued with religious and mystical characteristics. Generally written as allegories, these included works such as the apocryphal treatises of the Umayyad prince Khalid b. Yazid (d. 704), who was regarded as the proto-alchemist, as well as Ibn al-Wahshiyya (9^th century). During the mid-tenth century, Abu Abd Allah al-Khwarazmi created an encyclopedia of technical terms, Keys of the Sciences (Mafatih al-ulum). He describes alchemy in three parts. The first part describes the apparatus, the second is devoted to substances, and the third deals with the processing of substances.

Ibn Sina (980-1037), a prolific writer from Bukhara, revisited basic Aristotelean principles regarding the terrestrial origins of metals and minerals in his book, Kitab al-Shifa (Book of Healing). He did not believe alchemists could transform substances from one metal into another. Instead, alchemists could only produce thoughtful imitations, such as by decorating alloys with a sheen of gold or silver. Scholarly texts regarding the significance of alchemy and chemistry reflected its importance. Abu Nasr Mohammad al-Farabi (d. 950), wrote a treatise, On the Need for the Art of Chemistry (Risala fi Wujub sina at al-kimiya). Moreover, Ibn Sina’s al-Qanun fi ‘l-tibb (The Canon of Medicine), translated into Latin in the 12^th century, is an encyclopedic work that played an essential role in the development of European and Eastern medicine. For Ibn Sina, the theoretical basis of ancient Eastern medicine lay in the doctrine of mizaj, or mixed nature of substances, including medicines, which reflected properties of heat, coldness, dryness, and wetness. Although rooted in antiquity, the transformation and evolution of alchemy has led to a more thorough understanding of modern chemistry, pharmacology, and pharmaceutics in contemporary society.

See also:

Ancient Korean Art and Glassware

The Enduring Legacy of Ajanta Paintings

Applied Arts and Metalwork

Clothing as a Reflection of Socio-economic Status and Regional Differences

Madrasas as Universal Centers of Education and Culture

The Development of Artistic Textiles

Medieval Alchemy and Chemistry in Central Asia

Persian and Arab Musical Influences in Thai Courtly Life

The Art of Manuscript Bookmaking along the Silk Roads

Paths of New Beliefs

Regional Variations in Coinage and the Monetary System