The literature of Turkic and Mongolian traditions was intended to inspire courteous behavior and a sense of morality to younger generations; it is thus inextricably linked to their oral and epic historical traditions. The Turkic societies that lived in urban settlements thus developed different literary cultures to those of the steppes and mountains. Similarly, Mongolian literary culture varied depending on the social conditions and cultural traditions of Inner Mongolia, Kalmukia and Buriatia.
Persian literature and poetry in the nineteenth century developed in response to the changing political and social context. Neoclassicism, based around the principles of the Bazgasht School, was replaced by a new form of writing poetry in the constitutional period, with poets breaking tradition by discussing politics and contemporary events in their work. Literature in Dari underwent a similar process of development, and must be compared with Tajik and other Indo-Iranian literary cultures, such as Kashmiri and Punjabi, in this era.
The societies of later nineteenth century Central Asia were ethnologically and politically complex. Many different ethnological groups lived side by side under the same government, and whilst some communities were settled, others were nomadic. The intellectuals and poets of these societies influenced each other, leading to points of similarity in the intellectual developments of these peoples. Revolutionary ideologies and religious developments at the turn of the twentieth century resulted in the emergence of different movements.
Poetry, music, dance and epic stories were all ways in which the societies of Central Asia entertained themselves and others. Theatres, operas and ballets were the direct inheritors of this culture in the late nineteenth century, with each country developing its own traditions in the theatrical arts, and cinema became another important entertainment art as the twentieth century progressed.
The Xinjiang region of western China, the Mongols, and the Uighurs all enjoy unique yet related artistic and architectural traditions. From the mid-19th century until the present day, religious and political changes have combined with the multiple nationalities and ethnicities in these regions to form individual artistic cultures, from the practice of fine arts, to Buddhist art and architecture, and the products of the contemporary art scene.
From the late nineteenth to the end of the twentieth century, art forms in Northern Central Asia underwent a series of changes, as emerging technologies and new influences from all over the world had an effect on old practices. Arts and handicrafts, such as pottery, embossing, carpet making, leather goods, bone carving, and fine arts all continued to flourish, but in new ways that reflected the changing cultural environment.
The literature of the Turkic and Mongolian kingdoms in the late Middle Ages was diverse in language and style. Amongst the Turkic peoples, there remain traces of literature in Chaghatay, Kazakh, Karakalpak, Kyrgyz, and Turkmen languages, in addition to the tradition of Turkic epic poetry and historical literature. Simultaneously, Mongolian literature was undergoing renewal and innovation, and was closely linked to the spread of Buddhism and changes in Mongolian political life.
Between the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries it Central Asia, it became increasingly common to ‘comment’ on the works of great philosophers and on logical treatises from earlier eras. The main developments in philosophy from this period emanated from the Isfahan school, and the mystical philosophy of Sufism grew to become a popular and widely followed philosophical discipline.
There is a rich literary heritage in Persian from the sixteenth century. Of the prose works, history and biography are among the most notable from this period, whilst poetry was also extremely important. There was an important literary culture in Pashto too, as well as in the Indic languages of Pakistan and north-western India; namely, Kashmiri, Panjabi, Sindhi and Hindustani.
The painting and calligraphy in Iran, India and Eastern Central Asia were the most important arts of the book in the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries. The art of the illuminated manuscript was brought to perfection in this period and illustrations and calligraphy became important symbols of culture, religious adherence, and even dynastic legitimacy.
